Artificial Intelligence, Expert Systems and Robotics.

UCV Lima-East
Author: Anthony Jesús Paucar Ruiz
INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence is the study of how to build and/or program computers to do the kinds of things that the human mind can do: use language, reconocer rostros, identify objects semi-hidden in the shadow, advise on scientific, legal, and medical diagnostic problems. It provides many ideas about psychological processes and has thus given rise to a new approach in the study of the mind: Computational psychology.
Artificial intelligence (l. To) is nothing other than the attempt to produce machines and programs that are themselves intelligent. It is, in part, a branch of technology and engineering, but as a technological discipline it requires comprehensive models of the kind of phenomena it tries to reproduce. And it is in this area, the one of theoretical models about psychological life, where the difficulties are found. There is no unitary theory about mental processes; to tell the truth, we do not have a homogeneous and compact vision about how to make machines perform a certain kind of behavior and mental processes that we consider natural. The difficulty is not centered on building faster machines, with more memory, with a certain design; the difficult part is to have an approximate and reliable scientific model of how the brain secretes a set of intelligent functions.
Artificial intelligence also focuses on achieving the understanding of intelligent entities, one of the reasons for study is to learn from ourselves, AI efforts are directed both at the construction of intelligent entities and at their understanding.
How is it possible that such a tiny brain, being biological and electronic, can perceive, understand, predict and manipulate a world that in size and complexity far exceeds it? It is very difficult to create relying on those properties, worse, the AI researcher has compelling evidence that such a pursuit is real, one only has to look in the mirror to realize the example of an intelligent system.
The term AI was formally adopted in the year 1956, The study of Intelligence is one of the oldest disciplines. For more than 2000 years, philosophers have strived to understand how it looks, learns, remembers and reasons, as well as the way in which activities should be performed.
WHAT IS ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE?
AI is a branch of computer science that involves the study and creation of computerized systems that exhibit some form of intelligence: systems that learn new concepts and tasks, systems that can reason and draw useful conclusions about the world around us, systems that can understand a language and perceive and understand a visual scene, and systems that carry out other types of activities that require human intelligence.
Like any newly established discipline, AI is not unified in terms of objectives and research methods. Recently, part of the efforts of researchers in this area have been dedicated to defining these objectives and to the survey of. the methodological tools used so far (Boden, 1977; Dennett, 1978; Sloman, 1978; Ringle, 1979). As a result of this effort, which is far from its conclusion, some basic agreements about the area and its strategies have been defined.
Mental processes and reasoning:
-The interesting task that makes computers think… machines with mind in its broad literal sense (Haugeland, 1985)
-The automation of activities that we associate with human thought processes, activities such as decision-making, Troubleshooting, learning… (Bellman, 1978)
-El estudio de las facultades mentales mediante el uso de modelos computacionales”. (Charniak y McDermolt, 1985)
-El estudio de los cálculos que permiten percibir, razonar y actuar.” (Winston, 1992)
Conducta:
-El arte de crear maquinas con capacidades de realizar funciones que realizadas por personas requieren inteligencia”(Kurzweil, 1990)
-El estudio de cómo logar que las computadoras realicen tareas que, for the time being, los humanos hacen mejor” (Wealthy y Knight, 1991).
HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
1950. El nacimiento real de la IA se produjo en este año, cuando Norbet Wiener desarrolló el principio de la retroalimentación. Esta técnica consiste, for example, en la tecnología del termostato, comparar la temperatura actual del entorno con la deseada y, según los resultados aumentarla disminuirla.
1955. Newell and Simon develop the Logic Theory. This development allowed the creation of a program that explored the solution to a problem using branches and nodes, selecting only the branches that seemed most likely to approach the correct solution to the problem.
1956. At a conference in Vermont, John McCarthy proposes the term Artificial Intelligence to refer to the study of the subject. Afterwards, the ground is prepared for the future in AI research.
1957. The first version of The General Problem Solver appears (GPS), a program capable of solving common-sense problems. The GPS used Wiener's feedback theory.
1958. McCarthy announces his new development, the LISP language (LISt Processing), the language of choice for all those developers immersed in the study of AI.
1963. MIT receives a grant of 2,2 million dollars from the United States government for research in the field of AI.
1970. The advent of Expert Systems occurs. Expert Systems have been used to help doctors diagnose diseases and inform miners to find mineral veins. At the same time, in 1970. David Marr proposes new theories on the visual recognition capabilities of different machines.
1972. The language PROLOGUE appears, based on Minsky's theories.
1980. Sales of hardware and software programs related to AI amount to 425 million dollars in 1986 alone. Compañías como DuPont, General Motors, y Boeing utilizan sistemas expertos a principios de la década de los 80 y éstos sistemas expertos se convertirán en un commonplace a finales de la misma.
En los ninety. La IA se utiliza de forma efectiva en la Guerra del Golfo sobre sistemas de misiles visores para los soldados y otros avances, y al mismo tiempo, invade nuestros hogares y vida cotidiana en muchos más lugares.
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LOS SISTEMAS EXPERTOS
Un sistema experto puede definirse como un sistema basado en los conocimientos que imita el pensamiento de un experto, para resolver problemas de un terreno specific de aplicación.
Una de las características principales de los sistemas expertos es que están basados en reglas, I mean, contienen unos conocimientos predefinidos que se utilizan para tomar todas las decisiones.
INTRODUCTION
El estudio y desarrollo de los sistemas expertos (SES) comenzó a mediados de la década de los 60. Entre 1965 y 1972. Fueron desarrollados varios de estos sistemas, muchos de ellos tuvieron un alcance muy limitado, otros como MICIN 1,2 DENDRAL 3 y PROSPECTOR four, constituyeron la base histórica de los (SES) y aun en la actualidad son de gran interés para los investigadores quesee dedican al estudio y construcción de los mismos.
En teoría estos sistemas son capaces de razonar siguiendo pasos comparables a los que sigue un especialista (medico, biólogo, geólogo, matemático, and so on.), when solving a problem specific to their discipline. For this reason, the creator of a (SES) must begin by identifying and gathering, from the human expert, the knowledge that they use : theoretical knowledge acquired in practice.
Because it is (SES) knowledge-based programs, the programming of (SES) included as an elementary aspect knowledge programming, which makes use of the explicit representation of the knowledge to be used by the system and its logical interpretation through inference mechanisms, that allow deducing new knowledge from what is already known.
CHARACTERISTICS
A generic expert system consists of two main modules:
1.- The knowledge base of the expert system regarding a specific topic for which the system is designed. This knowledge is encoded according to a specific notation that includes rules, predicates, semantic networks and objects.
2.- The inference engine: it is the one that combines the facts and the particular questions, using the knowledge base, selecting the appropriate data and steps to present the results.
HISTORY OF EXPERT SYSTEMS
1965 DENDRAL, the first expert system.
In 1965 Feigenbaum joined the Stanford computer science department. There he met Joshua Lederberg, who wanted to find out what the structure of complete organic molecules was. The objective of DENDRAL was to study a chemical compound. El descubrimiento de la estructura global de un compuesto exigía buscar en un árbol las posibilidades, y por esta razón su nombre es DENDRAL que significa en griego árbol”.
Antes de DENDRAL los químicos solo tenían una forma de resolver el problema, esta period tomar unas hipótesis relevantes como soluciones posibles, y someterlas a prueba comparándolas con los datos.
La realización de DENDRAL duró más de diez años (1965-1975). Se le puede considerar el primer sistema experto.
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LA ROBÓTICA
Son unas máquinas controladas por ordenador y programada para moverse, manipular objetos y realzar trabajos a la vez que interacciona con su entorno. Los robots son capaces de realizar tareas repetitivas de forma más rápida, barata y precisa que los seres humanos.
El diseño de un manipulador robótico se inspira en el brazo humano. Las pinzas están diseñadas para imitar la función y estructura de la mano humana. Muchos robots están equipados con pinzas especializadas para agarrar dispositivos concretos.
Las articulaciones de un brazo robótico suelen moverse mediante motores eléctricos. Una computadora calcula los ángulos de articulación necesarios para llevar la pinza a la posición deseada.
En 1995 funcionaban unos seven hundred.000 robots en el mundo. Más de 500.000 se empleaban en Japón, unos one hundred twenty.000 en Europa Occidental y unos 60.000 en Estados Unidos. Many applications of robots correspond to dangerous tasks unpleasant for humans. In medical laboratories, robots handle
materials that involve possible risks, such as blood or urine samples. In other cases, robots are used in repetitive tasks where a person's performance could decrease over time. Robots can perform these high-precision repetitive operations 24 hours a day.
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